In 1846, Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels published one of their earliest works together titled The German Ideology. In it they laid out Marx’s materialistic conception of history. His theory of historical materialism contends that the material conditions of society, such as the means of it production and the ownership of it affect the nature of social, political, and cultural life. In essence he was arguing that the economic base of society determines the structure it takes.
In this theory, Marx argues that the history of all societies are characterized by class struggle. There is always a ruling class, which controls the means of production through the exploitation the working class who are left to sell their labor to the highest bidder in order to survive. This exploitation leads to conflicts that are commonly met with violent revolutionary upheavals. The end product of this is the establishment of a new social order with its corresponding new ruling class.
In capitalist society, Marx referred to the ruling class as the bourgeoisie. This class consists of those who own the means of production. In contrast, the proletariat are those who work within the means of production. They are the class that is forced to sell its labor power to the bourgeoisie in order to survive. It is the interest of the bourgeoisie to extract as much of the productive force from the proletariat without incurring to much cost. Alternatively, it is in the interest of the proletariat to retain as much of the value their labor produces for the bourgeoisie. Because of the proletariat’s dependence on the bourgeoisie to supply them with the opportunity to secure wages for survival, Marx believed proletariats were especially vulnerable to exploitation by the bourgeoisie. Left unchecked this would lead to a distortion in the accumulation of wealth and power concentrating in the hands of the bourgeoisie.
Over time Marx’s theory concludes that such contradictions are resolved through revolution leading to the emergence of a new more equitable economic system. In the case of capitalism, Marx argued that socialism was the next successive step in economic evolution. In socialism, the means of production are argued to be owned by the people and that production should be organized around the common good rather than the individual pursuit of profits.
A key concept related to the bubbling of conflict described above is the awareness of one’s position in the social class structure. From that point there is the subsequent recognition of one’s shared interests with those in the same class position. It represents an understanding that the working class must realize its shared interest in order to organize and advocate for change to their circumstances. Without a clear understanding of their position in society it is improbable for the working class to effectively organize and challenge the power of the ruling class.
Accordingly, Marx points out that class consciousness is not a natural form of consciousness that organically manifests itself amongst the working class. Instead, it is nourished through collective struggle and political mobilization. As workers come together around their shared economic interests, the working class will develop a sense of solidarity and awareness for the need to change the current system in order to improve of the conditions their lives. Nevertheless the realization of class consciousness is not something to be taken for granted. In fact, Marx points out that the continuation of exploitation is due to the existence of false consciousness among the working classes.
For Marx, False consciousness refers to the ways in which the ruling class manipulates the consciousness of the working class. This leads the working class to hold beliefs and attitudes that are contrary to their own economic interests. For example, the belief that social inequality is natural and inevitable, or the belief that the interests of the ruling class are in sync with the interests of the working class. These false beliefs are perpetuated through a variety of societal mechanisms, such as media propaganda, the educational system and overall values and beliefs. The ruling class uses these mechanisms to produce and promote a distorted view of reality, one that supports their own interests and reinforces current power relations. The existence of false consciousness hinders the realization of class consciousness by obscuring the reality of social relations and preventing the working class from recognizing the sources of their exploitation.
Overcoming false consciousness and developing class consciousness requires a critical analysis of dominant cultural narratives and a willingness to challenge the status quo. It also requires collective action and solidarity among the working class. Such solidarity builds a commitment to building alternative institutions that can effectively challenge the power of the ruling class.
Some have argued that Marx’s theory is flawed and point to the collapse of the former Soviet Union as a case in point. However, Marx who was in the ground for three decades before the Bolshevik revolution would argue that the Soviet experiment with communism was doomed at the outset. For Marx, the Soviet experiment attempted to transition from an agrarian society to an industrialized communist society, without going through an industrializing capitalist period capable of generating the necessary production infrastructure to support a shared system of communism.
Instead, what the Soviet Union implemented was a form of state capitalism. Here, the state controlled the means of production in order to control and exploit the working class in much the same way that capitalists do under capitalism. Without consideration to the private markets of consumption, the system ultimately led to corruption, a lack of innovation, and overwhelming inefficiencies. Marx would add that socialism and subsequently communism are not simply about state ownership of the means of production, but rather about the collective ownership and control of these resources by the people. The Soviet experiment saw the state bureaucracy operate complete control over the means of production, with little worker oversight and input.
But, why has capitalism continued to thrive in the United States rather than experience the demise forecasted by Marx? To answer that question it is important to remember that the United States is not a purely capitalistic system. Instead, it is a mixed economy that combines elements of both capitalism and socialism. For example, in the United States a government of the people provides a range of services, such as education, healthcare, and transportation infrastructure, which would otherwise be provided by private enterprise in a pure capitalist system. Further, the government also regulates many aspects economic activity that takes place within the United States, such as labor laws and environmental regulations. In a purely capitalistic system, capitalists are able to operate without any government constraint or intervention.
Additionally, in a laissez-faire form of capitalism the market would determine interest rates and money supply, but in the United States these decisions are made by the Federal Reserve. Here the government is responsible for setting these conditions, like an umpire influencing the economies direction.
Finally, in a true capitalist system, the explanation for continuance of economic inequality is argued to be the natural byproduct of a functioning market. Yet in the United States, the government can and does exacerbates such inequality through tax policies that are more advantageous to the ruling class.
As for the consciousness of the working classes, you cannot discount the buffer that capitalist ideology plays in shaping American culture and values. For example, the American Dream promotes the idea that anyone can achieve success through hard work and determination. This ideology masks the reality of class based obstacles and exploitation. It perpetuates the myth that success and wealth are solely the result of individual effort, rather than the exploitation of labor.
Furthermore, the capitalist class in the United States are particularly effective at co-opting and dividing the working class through various means. Consider the long and continuous history of racial and ethnic division that has pitted workers against each other. These ongoing divisions make it difficult for the working class to unite and develop the class consciousness necessary in the identification of their true exploiters.
The results have been the absence of a strong and sustained labor movement in the United States. The decline of unionization and the weakening of labor rights have made it difficult for workers to organize and assert their collective power.
Regardless of one’s beliefs, Marx’s historical materialism emphasizes the importance of economic analysis in understanding social change. Through inquiry into economic structures and the nature of productive relations in society, better understanding of the forces that drive historical development and societal progress can be discovered.
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